History and culture of Never Let Me Go Essay examples

Kazuo Ishiguros novel Never Let me Go uses a dystopian fantasy world to illustrate the authors view that our real world practice of eugenics is as equally immoral and degrading as the world he describes. The eugenic-soaked world of Never Let me Go is dystopian, and our real world, with its quiet adoption of soft eugenics, is equally dystopian. Ishiguros point is that utopia can never be attained in either realm if it contains the contagion of eugenics. By depicting unfair struggles that eugenics rigged pre-destination imposes on his oh so human characters, Ishiguro portrays the Eugenists utopian wet dream as a nightmarish perversion of humanitys social contract. By extinguishing the natural rights of the few for the wellbeing†¦show more content†¦Like Hailsham, eugenics is maintained by its supporters impulsive whims and superordinate agendas. It is highly susceptible to abuse and corruption, a drug that empowers societys body at the cost of its conscience. If my body is beautiful, the book argues, so is my society. Conscience is not needed. Eugenics, mutable like all of its Communist relatives, originally existed as a well-intended manifesto for social betterment and the removal of unintended pain and suffering. In the era before modern birth control and genetic testing it was heartbreaking to see, and impossible to ignore, the existence of women who seemed to produce multiple children with multiple incurable medical problems. Wouldnt society, wouldnt the human condition, simply be better if these deformities were prevented? However, as the real-world history of eugenics shows, concern for preventing medical disease soon morphed into concern for preventing social â€Å"Ills, predicated on the idea that some intractable social problems such as alcoholism were due to innate deficiencies, and this innate deficiency was justifiably available to eugenic control. North Carolinas eugenics laws and their segue into forced sterilization of deficient women testify to this transition from the medical to the social. However, as the books innumerable characters show, when these well-intended ideas are applied universally they unintentionally become an oppressive sword because thereShow MoreRelatedA Pair Of Tickets By Amy Tan936 Words   |  4 PagesJune May crossing an ocean to visit her family that she has never met, where she connects with her Chinese heritage in a way she was never able to before. On her trip, she discovers the depth and importance of her culture through her family members. The main character, June May, is a woman of Chinese heritage, from San Francisco, California. Growing up in the United States, in a very American environment, June May feels as though she never truly understood what it meant to be Chinese. 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The Horrible Experiences of the Jewish People during The...

We have all experienced darkness. We have all experienced unfair punishment. We have all experienced desperation. However, we cannot, even for a second, think that we can fully understand the experiences of the persecuted Jewish people during the Holocaust. Each prisoner had undergone sufferings personal to him or her. Due to the unfathomable torture that led to the desolation of the human spirit, most prisoners abandoned their morals to fight for survival. It is hard to measure when and under what circumstances this is â€Å"appropriate† or justifiable. I argue that the ruthless manifestation of evil validates the loss of self and therefore the loss of morality. For those that have survived the Holocaust, there are implications of the loss of humanity and face the test of readopting their humanity in order to assimilate into society once again. Morality is defined as the â€Å"beliefs about what is right behavior and what is wrong behavior.† It is a â€Å"code[s] of conduct put forward by a society.† Members of this said society adopt this code of conduct and follow it. However, when a group of people, for example, the victims of the Holocaust, is no longer members of the society because they are spotlighted as outcasts, they are no longer bound to the rules of the society. This disillusionment, however, is not enough to make the abandonment of ethics understandable. This is taken one step further in the example of the Holocaust. When this alienated group of Jewish people is notShow MoreRelatedJewish Literature And The Holocaust899 Words   |  4 PagesHolocaust literature is one of the emerging field in literature during the second half of the twentieth century. Several Holocaust survivors wrote about the atrocities they witnessed and their experiences during the incarceration. 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Investigation of Sorrel in Epping Forest Free Essays

Aim: The purpose of this coursework was to investigate the impact visitors have had on the growth of sorrel on Pillow Mound in Epping Forest and to find out whether soil compression has an effect on the height of the plant sorrel. Hypothesis: There will be a significant difference in the height of sorrel if soil compaction is great. The greater the soil compaction is, the more it restricts sorrel growth. We will write a custom essay sample on Investigation of Sorrel in Epping Forest or any similar topic only for you Order Now Null Hypothesis: Read this  Respiratory Activity There is no significant correlation between soil compaction and the height of the sorrel plant, any correlation established is due to chance. Scientific knowledge: The soil has fewer spaces that contain air and water needed for plant growth, is less permeable, can store less soil water and is harder for roots to penetrate. In their virgin state, soils can be productive and characterised by excellent physical condition. They allow rapid movement of air and water through the soil, providing an ideal environment for maximum root growth. However, soils are fragile and easily restructured, especially during cropping. Compaction is an example of this restructuring. If compacted badly enough, a soil does not provide adequate space for root growth and soil animal activity, or allow for rapid movement of air and water. In severe cases, roots are unable to penetrate into deeper soil layers, tending to grow along the top of the pan. The best way for water and air to move through the soil is in large pores created by decaying plant roots or soil insects and earthworms this creates a humus layer on the top of the soil which has many nutrients the sorrel can take up. The eventual death and decay of these organisms adds to the humus layer making the soil more favourable to sorrel plant roots allowing the plant to grow and flower. Water plays a major role in plant growth. Plants synthesise carbohydrates from Carbon Dioxide and Water. Water donates + ions to the cell, which are subsequently used in pathways to generate energy in the form of ATP. In non-cyclic phosphorylation water molecules are split to provide reducing power to make carbohydrates. Water is also an important transport medium delivering dissolved minerals that are essential for plant growth to all parts of the plant via the xylem. Water is a product in aerobic respiration. Respiration is the process of metabolizing (burning) sugars to yield energy for growth, reproduction, and other life processes. In a plentiful supply of air glucose and oxygen combine to form water and carbon dioxide and most vitally energy in the form of ATP. Water also maintains the turgor pressure in giving the non-woody plant parts form. Turgidity is important so the plant can remain stiff and upright and gain a competitive advantage when it comes to light. Turgidity is also important for the functioning of the guard cells, which surround the stomata and regulate water loss and carbon dioxide uptake. Turgidity also is the force that pushes roots through the soil. Variables: Independent: Soil compaction tested every 3m for 28 m along 4 line transects to see how soil compaction affects plant growth. Soil compaction tested with use of penetrometer. Dependent: Height of the plant sorrel on each line transect created every 3m up to 28m at the site Pillow Mound in Epping Forest. Sorrel height tested using a ruler and the sorrel closest to the line transect was used. Control Variables: The variables that remain unchanged or held constant to prevent its effects on the outcome and therefore may verify the behaviour of and the relationship between independent and dependent variables. The variables tested for in my investigation must be the same in order for me to establish a reliable correlation between soil compaction and the height of the sorrel plant. Light Intensity Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems. It is the energy that is used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll) during the process of photosynthesis; a process during which plants manufacture organic substances by combining inorganic substances. Visible light is of the greatest importance to plants because it is necessary for photosynthesis. Factors such as quality of light, intensity of light and the length of the light period (day length) play an important part in an ecosystem. Light directly or indirectly affects the life activities. For the photosynthetic activity of green plants light is essential. Growth, germination, flowering and other functions of plant are controlled by photoperiodism and different light rays. The higher the light intensity, the larger the height of the plant of sorrel. A light meter was used to gather light intensity readings. It gives an accurate lux value. The sensor is placed facing upwards and a value s given . For each line transect light intensity has to be very similar to ensure our variables remain the same so we gather reliable data. I set out each transect away from trees which created shadows and so this ensured that light intensity remained constant throughout each line transect. pH of Soil The pH level of the surrounding soil can have extreme results on the growth rate and overall health of a plant. The pH is technically defined as the negative base ten logarithm of the effective hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per litre. It is measured on a scale of 1-14, with each reading being shown as an acid, base, or a neutral solution. If the measurement is less than 7, it is considered an acid. The plant sorrel grows best in the acidic pH conditions of 5.5 – 6.8. The pH of the soil for each line transect created must be the same for the whole 28 m length tested for each. Variation in my pH results limits the validity of my data as it influences the height of sorrel. pH influences availability of certain nutrients such as phosphate availability which is low on acid soils. Soil samples are taken from each transect at 1m 13m and 28m. Back in the laboratory barium sulphate and indicator solution are added to the samples and ph is worked out. Soil Temperature Soil temperature plays an important role in many processes, which take place in the soil such as chemical reactions and biological interactions. Soil temperature varies in response to exchange processes that take place primarily through the soil surface. These effects are propagated into the soil profile by transport processes and are influenced by such things as the specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity. Soil temperature affects water and nutrient uptake. Biological enzymes work best at certain temperatures, if enzyme optimum temperature is exceeded or not reached this could limit the rate to which the enzyme is working limiting the growth and in turn the height of the plant sorrel. Soil temperature has a major effect on the breakdown or decomposition of soil organic matter. This organic component of the soil system is a major reservoir for phosphorus, sulphur, and nitrogen. Approximately 90% of the total amount of sulphur in soil is found in the organic matter. So, if decomposition is slowed, the ready availability of some nutrients necessary for crop growth can be restricted early in the growing season restricting plant growth.† Soil temperature (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) readings are to be taken with the use of a soil thermometer and then recorded on a table. Preliminary Investigation A day before my data collection, I visited Plain Mounds and gathered some preliminary data. My preliminary data was carried out to help me find the sites that should be tested and the distance of each line transect. Initially before preliminary data a 37m line transect was chosen, however, once I experienced the site a 28 m distance was most appropriate as there is no significant variation after the 28m in sorrel height; therefore it would be pointless and time consuming to carry it over a larger distance. Preliminary Investigation Method: 1. A line transect created over a distance of 28m. 2. Tape measure placed flat along the ground vertically. Stretch tape to cover 28m in a straight line along site investigated. 3. Data readings for soil temperature, light intensity, soil pH, soil compression and sorrel height at 1m, 13m and 28m. 4. Soil compaction measurements taken using a penetrometer My readings were taken 1cm at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle at each interval to the left of the line transect. The scale was set to 0 by moving the ring to the handle, the spike was then pushed vertically into the ground until the indention is level with the surface of the soil. The handle was released and then the results were read off the scale on the side of the penetrometer. 5. The soil thermometer was placed at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle 2 cm away to the left of the line transect at every interval. 6. Place a 1m long ruler across the line transect at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle this way I can work out which sorrel plant is closest to the line transect. Once this was worked out, a 30cm ruler was used to measure the sorrel height in its natural position. 7. Light meter measures the light intensity. Place the sensor at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle next to line transect where the sorrel plant is growing. Value in lux read off the scale. 8. Use auger to gain 10cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ sample at the 3 intervals. Twist auger in a clockwise direction whilst pushing down; the soil sample taken must be then placed into soil bags and taken to the lab for further testing of pH. 9. Record data on pre prepared table. 10. In lab to work out pH of soil: 11. 1cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ of each soil sample was placed into separate test tubes. 1cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ of distilled water was added to each test tube. After distilled water added, 1cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Barium Sulphate was added to each test tube. Finally indicator was added to each test tube and pH was tested and found out by comparing to a pH scale. A systematic stratified approach was decided as my ideal sampling technique. Systematic sampling is when samples are taken at fixed intervals, usually along a line. This normally involves doing transects, where a sampling line is set up across areas where there are clear environmental gradients. Systematic sampling is my chosen method of sampling for my investigation as I am investigating the changes of plant species as you move along a gradient. Stratified sampling was used as we were comparing 4 different subdivisions within Plain Mounds. Systematic Stratified is the combination of these 2 sampling techniques; it’s my preferred sampling technique as it avoids bias and for each sample collected the same approach is followed. this now seemed unnecessary due to little variation after 28m. The start point of the line transect was set to where variation in ground begins. Apparatus: Penetrometer Measures the compaction of the soil. Measures in Kg/cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Simple and easy to use. Data can be gathered very quickly. Light Meter Used to measured light intensity every 3 metres along each line transect for 28 m. Measured in Lux Gives an accurate Lux value, instrument easy to use and data can be gathered easily Auger Barium Sulphate Soil bags Test tube Spatula pH scale Auger used to get 3 soil samples one sample at 1m the others at 13m and 28m. Soil sample needed so pH of soil could be identified once barium sulphate distilled water and indicator were added to each sample. Sample placed in soil bags. Soil sample placed in individual test tube using spatula and barium sulphate and indicator solution added. A soil pH meter would have been convenience wise much easier to achieve the data, however, adding the barium sulphate to the soil samples taken has ensured my data reliability. Primary data as I have gathered my results here without help of an instrument. Tape measure Used to create line transect. Line transect 28m long. 28m length chosen as after the 28m there is no change in variation of sorrel height, therefore anything more than a line transect of over 28m is irrelevant Soil Thermometer Used to measure soil temperature (à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) Easy and quick. A mercury thermometer effectively. An electronic instrument could be more reliable as human error won’t come into it in reading the results 30 cm ruler Used to measure sorrel height Easy and simple to measure plant height 1m ruler Used every 3m to go at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle across every 3m to find the closest sorrel plant to the line transect 30cm in some cases not long enough, however 1m long ruler the right size Method: 1. Create a line transect, open up tape measure up to 28m. 2. Place tape measure flat along the ground vertically. Stretch tape measure to cover 28m in straight line along site that we are investigating. 3. Take data readings for soil temperature, light intensity, soil compression and sorrel height at 1m, 4m, 7m, 10m, 13m, 16m, 19m, 22m, 25m, and 28m. 4. Soil compaction measurements taken using a penetrometer which measures the force needed to push the spike into the ground. My readings were taken 1cm at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle at each interval to the left of the line transect. The scale was set to 0 by moving the ring to the handle, the spike was then pushed vertically into the ground until the indention is level with the surface of the soil. The handle was released and then the results were read off the scale on the side of the penetrometer. 5. The soil thermometer was placed at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle 2 cm away to the left of the line transect at every interval. 6. Along the line transect at each interval a metre long ruler is placed across the line transect at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle this way I can work out which sorrel plant is closest to the line transect. Once this was worked out, a 30cm ruler was used to measure the sorrel height in its natural position. 7. Light meter measures the light intensity. Place the sensor at a 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ angle next to line transect where the sorrel plant is growing. Value in lux read off the scale. Move away from sensor so your shadow doesn’t affect lux value. 8. Take soil samples at 1m, 13m and 28m to calculate soil pH. Use auger to gain 10cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ sample at the 3 intervals. Twist auger in a clockwise direction whilst pushing down; the soil sample taken must be then placed into soil bags and taken to the lab for further testing of pH. 9. Record data on pre prepared table. 10. In lab to work out pH of soil: * 1cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ of each soil sample was placed into separate test tubes. 1cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ of distilled water was added to each test tube. After distilled water added, 1cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Barium Sulphate was added to each test tube. Finally indicator was added to each test tube and pH was tested and found out by comparing to a pH scale. 3pH readings gained at each of the 4 sites. 11. Repeat the steps for the 4 subdivisions within Pillow Mound. Risk Assessment: Risk is the probability of harm actually taking place. A hazard exists where situation has a built-in ability to cause an adverse effect. At the site Pillow Mound in Epping Forest, a few risks were associated with my investigation. 1. 8 pieces of equipment needed to be carried with me to the site to help with this and limit the risk of me tripping up with all the equipment in my hand, a tray was used to place all the equipment needed for the investigation. 2. The sites surface was very uneven at all the areas that were tested within plain mounds. To control the hazard I had no other option but to take my time with walking across the field. Taking my time and making sure I was looking where I was stepping ensured this hazard was avoided. 3. Slippery surfaces and deep muddy areas were also an issue to avoid this specific hazard wellington boots were worn. Strong boots may prevent twisting of ankle. 4. Gathering pH samples with the auger meant there was a risk of causing injury to my wrists, to help with the turning of the into the ground another auger was placed in the top of the one in the ground making it easier to rotate the auger by creating a handle. 5. When testing soil pH samples, gloves had to be worn to avoid contact with the barium sulphate. Safety goggles and lab coats also used to protect the eyes and the skin. 6. After the soil pH has been tested the remaining soil is then placed into a compost bin. Analysis: The scatter graph shown in figure 1.1 shows how soil compression affected the growth of sorrel. The data inputted into this graph was averages of the data collected for soil compression (Kg) and sorrel height (cm) from the 4 subdivisions investigated and tested at Pillow Mound. The graph shows a clear negative correlation between soil compression and sorrel height. As soil compression increases it is evident that sorrel height decreases. The largest sorrel growth on average was 0.0975 cm and this was with a soil compression of 1.575 kg, my lowest sorrel growth recorded from my results was 0.0011cm with a soil compression of 3.6 kg. As sorrel height isn’t constantly decreasing with increasing soil compaction it was appropriate to further my understanding and calculate how strong the relationship between my independent variable, soil compaction and dependent variable sorrel height was. This would also help me establish whether the data was causational or correlational. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is a non-parametric measure of statistical dependence between two variables. It assesses how well the relationship between two variables can be described. It makes no assumption about data distribution. The value for rs is between +1 and -1, where +1 indicates a strong positive correlation, -1 indicates a strong negative correlation and 0 indicates no correlation at all. The data gathered at all 4 sites indicates a strong negative correlation between soil compression and the height of sorrel. The rs value gathered for my averages was -0.89 and this is greater than the critical value for 10 data sets at the 99% significance level. Therefore we can be 99% sure that soil compression restricts sorrel height and I can subsequently reject my null hypothesis establishing that causational relationship between the 2 variables is present. Conclusion: The purpose of this coursework was to find out about the impact which visitors have had on Epping Forest and how the subsequent soil compaction affects sorrel growth. Epping Forest has recreational, aesthetic and educational values, so is a perfect place for visitors. Considerable damage has probably been caused to the environment due to the large number of visitors. Soil compaction at Pillow Mound was relatively high probably due to human interference. Figure 1.0 showing the averages shows us that at 1m, the mean soil compression was 4.175 Kg whilst at 28m the mean soil compression was 1.575 Kg. Figure 0.9 also shows that at 1m at Site 4 soil compression exceeded 4.5 Kg. Management of the site is being introduced with the building of car parks, an information centre, and even a ditch next to the car park to stop the cars getting onto the grass. Epping Forest is one of a number of open spaces around London owned and managed by the City of London as part of its commitment to sustaining a world class city and for the conservation of wildlife and historic landscape. The investigation of how soil compaction affects the height of the plant Sorrel was gratifying as a correlation between soil compaction and Sorrel growth was determined. A slight flaw which may have had an impact on my results was the fact average light intensity increased slightly with increasing distance along the tape measure. At 1m light intensity was at 1894.25 Lux, at 28m this had increased to 1900.25 Lux with the Lux value fluctuating over the 28m distance. Although the differences in light intensities are little, my results are limited slightly as light intensity affects plant growth. The higher the light intensity the higher the plant growth. Light plays a major role in photosynthesis which is a 2 stage process involving the light dependent stage and light independent stage which could continue in the dark. When a photon of light hits a chlorophyll molecule the energy is transferred to the electrons of that molecule. The electrons are excited and raised to higher energy leve ls. If an electron is raised sufficiently it is picked up by an electron acceptor and results into ATP production via cyclic and non-cyclic phosphorylation. ATP is formed supplying the energy needed for synthesis of carbohydrates and the electron is passed along Electron Transport Chain (ETC). The differences in Lux are relatively minuscule along the line transects and so it is not sufficient enough to make my results invalid. Data collection was carried out in the morning before the sun had fully risen, as time passed and data was collected at each interval the sun carried on rising thus explaining the small differences in light intensity. In hindsight data collection should have happened at each interval at each of the 4 sites simultaneously, however, this was not viable as there were not enough people available to assist with data collection. My hypothesis that the greater the soil compaction, the lower the height of the Sorrel plant, has proved to be correct. This is due to the fact that soil compaction doesn’t provide adequate space for the roots of the sorrel plant, which subsequently means that the plant cannot get enough nutrients, water and minerals from the soil which are needed for optimum growth. By using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient this was worked out and we are 99% certain that a negative correlation exists between the 2 variables. 4 different sites were tested at Pillow Mound in Epping Forest, and my Spearman’s rank correlations for each site indicated a strong negative correlation. To back up my hypothesis even further my preliminary data indicate a negative correlation between Sorrel height and soil compaction. 10 samples were collected along each transect so we could get an RS value for spearman’s rank that was 99% reliable and not down to chance. Evaluation My investigation was highly edifying and although I came to the conclusion that there is a 99% chance that soil compaction affects sorrel height proving my hypothesis correct, in hindsight I would make a few crucial amendments to my method and investigation so next time I carry out the investigation I will have an even higher level of confidence in my results. The 4 subdivisions at Pillow Mound were investigated to gain a general overview of the site. By testing one site, we are limiting our data as our results may only be conclusive for that part of Plain mounds. When collecting data light intensity values varied as the values could not be all taken at the same time. To avoid this more people could help with the fieldwork and we could simultaneously gain figures for light intensity at the same time. To do this more light meters would have to be provided. Time constraints were also a major issue. We were given around 3 hours to collect our fieldwork from 4 different sub divisions within Pillow Mound. Without time constraints there would be less pressure to complete the fieldwork within a specific time leaving us enough time to gather data with each instrument. Ideally a longitudinal study would be most ideal as the patterns established from the data was from only 1 day in the whole calendar year. Throughout the year, sorrel height will vary. The day my data was collected may not depict an average day in Epping Forest and so my data is invalid. A longitudinal study is ideal so we can collect data over the year and see how sorrel height varies. To increase data reliability we could collect data for soil compaction and sorrel height every 3 months at the same 4 subdivisions and see if there is any significant correlation. The weather would also have an effect on sorrel height; if it rains soil will be more compact and soil infiltration would not occur as rapidly. This in turn could affect seed germination as roots cannot penetrate lower soil layers. I expect plant height to be higher in the spring as spring provides optimum temperatures for seed germination, aswell as the fact that it doesn’t rain as much during spring as it does winter, so soil will not become drenched allowing the roots to penetrate the soil greater and greater foundations allows a better uptake of minerals and greater sorrel growth. The most helpful modification would be to carry out this investigation on a different site within Epping Forest; this could show a clear contrast to how sorrel height varies with soil compaction. The data gathered in this study could only be relevant for Pillow Mound, so broadening our study to more than 1 site could further enhance data validity and reliability. Further investigations possibly using 2 paths at each subdivision could further validate data. As a pH probe was not available at the field centre, to measure pH of the soil we had to add a spatula full of barium sulphate as well as 1cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ of distilled water to 1 cmà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ of each soil sample in separate test tubes. The amount of barium sulphate added or the amount of soil sample added to each test tube would affect pH and so our pH values could vary due to human error and the variable wasn’t of constant of using the same formula each time. A pH probe would eliminate human error and the same procedure could have been kept throughout and been kept constant. How to cite Investigation of Sorrel in Epping Forest, Papers

How Socioeconomic Status Impacts on Health free essay sample

Discuss How Socioeconomic Status Impacts on Health Outcomes in Contemporary Australia: In contemporary Australia there are many social classes which group people in regards to their financial, legal and family situations. The effect that socioeconomic status has on the health outcomes of an Australian person today’s society is a great one. Persons belonging to low or the lowest socioeconomic status groups have more disadvantaged health outcomes compared to persons belonging to high socioeconomic status groups (Govil, et al, 2009).There are many social factors that determine health and a large number of them are deprived in lower socioeconomic status groups. These social determinants would include housing, employment, education and income. It has been found that the greater the degree of socioeconomic status inequalities within a society, the steeper the gradient of health inequalities (Schrader, 2003). It is also important to consider the impacts of socioeconomic status in the context of sociological theories of stratification; such as symbolic interaction, functionalism and conflict theory. The sociological theories of stratification are defined by how different groups in society are viewed, valued or undervalued. Firstly, Symbolic Interactism is a concept by Calvin Cooley referred to as the Looking Glass Self’. We see ourselves in terms of how we are viewed in society. If society views us unworthy or substandard we may come to perceive ourselves that way and behave accordingly. The media largely perpetuates certain attitudes about socioeconomic groups and hence suggests particular behaviour within those socioeconomic groups.This can be either positive or negative and significantly influences health outcomes of specific groups. Conflict theory can be defined by the conflict that occurs between the higher socioeconomic and lower socioeconomic classes. Individuals belonging to higher socioeconomic quartiles are able to access private health care and hence will have a better health outcome compared to someone belonging to a lower socioeconomic quartile (Hall, Hendrie, Sheiner, 2004). This is the unfortunate reality of the conflict theory.Functionalism is a theory which describes society as a structure with integral parts. It sees society as needing to work together to achieve equilibruim. Disadvantaged socioeconomic groups are often rejected by society at large because if you do not function adequately in society or contribute greatly in anyway, you are thought to be harmful to the equilibrium and therefore less valuable. Due to certain groups being valued over others, there is a huge disparity in the allocation of health care access. The environmental surroundings and conditions of a person’s housing situation contribute largely towards there lifestyle. Where a person lives, and the surrounding environment, are important components of a person’s lifestyle. In addition it is assumed that their lifestyle is an indication of social class and income. Where a person lives is an attribute to that certain individual’s social class. A high percentage of low income households residing in particular neighbourhoods is usually indicative of neighbourhood disadvantages (Feldman, Warr, Tacticos, Kelaher, 2009).These disadvantages, such as pollution and poor health care services result in a higher amount of morbidity, mortality and hospitalisation than those in higher social classes. It has also been found that people who have poor living conditions are more likely to get diseases such as pneumonia and scabies (World Health Organization, 2008). Hertzman, Jiandhong, Mattes, McMurray and Stanley (2009) found that environmental factors have a significant effect on health in particular their work environments. People in the lower social classes often have jobs that expose them to more hazardous sites and materials, then that of higher social classes.It has also been stipulated that people with lower socioeconomic statuses will more likely have jobs that involve hard labour, shift work and poorer work choices; such as less or no sick pay, annual or maternity leave. As found by Govil et. al. (2009), less-educated individuals were more likely to be disadvantaged in terms of health. They were more likely to engage in unhealthy practices; such as smoking, inactivity, eating a high fat diet and being overweight, compared to higher socioeconomic quartiles. Furthermore, they also had a greater likelihood of suffering from depression.Most childhood injuries have no link to socioeconomic status however in the case burns, poisoning and traffic related accidents there is a direct correlation between lower socioeconomic quartiles and these injuries (Finch, Hayen, Poulos, Zwi, 2007). Through the education of parents and children to dangers and management of accidents these injuries can all be prevented. Education is a crucial determining factor in health and can be considered from another angle. Browing, Kendig and Techuva (1998) suggested that education affects the access to occupations and income, which more directly influences health outcomes.The income of a family household greatly affects the individual’s health. In a study conducted by Kozyrskyj et. al. (2010), it was found that children born in to households with a chronic low income were twice as more likely to have asthma at the age of 14 compared to those born in to households with increasing incomes or never low incomes. It was proposed that the reason for this was due to the high stress environment and prolonged endotoxin exposure consistent with chronically low income households.In addition, there are statistics that demonstrate the correlation between public or rural hospitals and a lower success rate in the recovery of women from breast cancer operations compared to private hospitals (Hall, Hendrie, Sheiner, 2004). This suggests that lower income earners will not have access to a better level of care and also a better convenience of care. Australia has a large gap between its different socioeconomic classes regarding health outcomes. The factors involved with determining health outcomes between classes are education, income, employment and housing.

11 ways to stop procrastinating and get writing

11 ways to stop procrastinating and get writing 11 ways to stop procrastinating and get writing Do you ever feel like youre always in a face-off with your word processor – and losing? If so, you wont be surprised to hear that one of the biggest problems nearly everyone faces when they have something to write is getting started. Call it writers block. Call it finding your muse. Call it spending two hours on Facebook for every two lines you write. Whatever you call it, getting started is hard. Most of us are guilty of procrastinating sometimes – especially when we have something important to write. Thankfully, there are lots of ways you can tackle this problem. Dont think that finding the writing process horribly painful is inevitable. Its not. By using the right tools and techniques and going in with the right mindset, you can be more productive and spend less time agonising about your writing. Ive put together eleven of the best ways of doing this. Some get you unstuck. Some get your thinking clear. Others just kill distractions. Together, they attack the problem of getting started from multiple angles. Try them. Get writing. And spend less time staring into the blank whiteness of Document1.doc. 1) Use a timer A lot of the time, it feels like the only real finishing line in writing is when youve finally hit send on an email or handed in a report. That reward is a long way away and youre not sure when its coming. Its no wonder its hard to stay motivated. However, writing is much easier if you give yourself a clear finishing line – or a few of them. A timer can help. Heres how to do it: Write down a mini-task thats related to writing your document – say, researching some figures or writing your first draft. Use a timer (like this one) and set it for 25 minutes. Work on the mini-task you wrote down until the timer goes off. Take a break. You dont have to complete the mini-task. Thats not what counts as success here. Success is now defined as working on the problem for twenty-five minutes. Its far easier than just aiming for a really distant finishing line. Try it. Many people find it works. You can extend this method even further by trying the Pomodoro Technique. 2) Get your research done first Research can be the biggest part of your preparation. So if youre really not sure what it is youre writing about, you need to get back to the drawing board. Too many people struggle on, trying to make everything come together in one go. But lets say you have your ideas together, and you cant get unstuck because you cant figure out what needs to go in. Read on. 3) Write a mind map If writing is the problem, then try not writing. I know this sounds strange. But there are several ways you can move forward without having to write a single word of your document. Mind maps are one. Theyre a versatile tool (we go into lots of detail about these in our online-training programme e360). But the core idea is very simple. To create a mind map, follow these steps: Note down the subject in the middle of the page. Write the aspects of the subject around it. Look at each aspect and think about it. Draw a line for each new idea or piece of information and continue this process, radiating outwards. Keep asking questions such as Why?, How?, What?, When?, Where? and Who? until you’re satisfied you’ve put down everything you know about the subject. Just getting something down on paper will help you get into the flow. The same applies when youre face to face with your dreaded nemesis: the blank screen 4) Write absolute gibberish Hwgeuwhfeouwfewlfjewfn. Blub blub blub blub flep flep flep flep. Trolololololo. Feel better? Great. The relief of filling up the white space and getting your fingers moving can be good in itself for banishing the fear of getting going. (Ditch any idea that this is inherently ridiculous – if it gets you started, that’s all that matters.) The next tactic shows how you can take this complete freedom even further. 5) Get a draft written first: it doesnt have to be perfect If you write total gibberish, writing is as easy as randomly mashing the keyboard. If you aim for perfect writing first time, writing seems almost impossible. Thats because it is very, very hard to write brilliant, error-free content first time. Excellent content comes with gradual refinement by revising and editing your writing. But if you try and do writing and editing at the same time, youre paralysing yourself for no good reason. So draft freely. Try drafting more quickly than youre comfortable with, leaving spelling mistakes or sentences that dont sound that great behind – knowing you will return to fix your writing later. And take some pressure off yourself: 6) Stop aiming for the perfect document: the 90 per cent rule Trying to give 100 per cent can be a recipe for failure. The sports psychologist Robert Kriegel saw this while working with some Olympic sprinting hopefuls. The sprinters were tense and tight during practice runs. So Kriegel told them to try running at 90 per cent of their normal intensity. It had surprising results. The group ran faster when they were trying less. In fact, one sprinter even set an unofficial world record. Its the same with writing. Trying to be the 100 per cent complete greatest professional who will write the best of all possible documents is too much pressure. Youll do better by giving yourself (just a little) bit of slack. 7) Ask whoever needs the document what they want If youre really stuck, it may just be because you dont really know what you should write and why. Thats a pretty hard thing to admit, especially if youre deep in the writing process. But for some documents, it can be best to pull yourself away from your screen and ask whomever youre writing for what they want. This can be something as simple as, ‘Youve asked for a report on the incident, so Im going to write what happened and why it happened, interview everyone who was involved and ask them what they did, and give some recommendations to make sure it doesnt happen again.’ At this point, you might find out that youre missing a big section, or conversely that what youre writing is more detail than they want. Either way, getting some clarity on what’s expected will make every other part of your writing easier. (But what if you cant ask them? In that case, you can profile the reader in your head.) 8) Discipline yourself: install something that will force you to get focused Some of the best engineers, psychologists, designers and marketers in the world have collaborated to make the most distracting websites possible. Theyve developed ways of systematically undermining your willpower and keeping you hooked. And theyre getting better all the time. This can occasionally cause minor problems in staying focused. So, instead of fighting the siren call of these websites with your willpower, it can be best just to block all such sites completely. The tools RescueTime and SelfControl both help you do this. Many people find the compulsion to flip to their favourite wasting-time site fades once theyve run into a few messages telling them that its blocked. After a while, it gets easier to get into a state of flow and get on with your writing. 9) Take away your options: stop playing with fonts One of the most popular articles weve ever written is The best fonts for business documents – in the time youve been reading this, its very likely that several people have read that article. Were happy people are interested in looking professional, and any reduction in the number of serious business documents written in Comic Sans is a good thing. But, unfortunately, too many people look at formatting first, rather than last. Instead of drafting your document in Word, which is constantly offering you a range of seductive fonts and line heights and margin sizes and bullet-point options (and on and on and on), it can be better just to strip all this out. Draft does this. Its a site that lets you write documents in your browser, and we swear by it at Emphasis. The interface limits your formatting options and lets you get on with writing. (You can read our review of it here.) Best of all? A completely functional version is free (its the one I used to write this article). 10) Speak to someone As children, we communicated our ideas by speaking long before we started doing so in writing. For many people, speaking still comes more naturally and easily than writing once they’re adults. So if youre struggling, stop typing and talk to someone. Tell them the main points of what youre writing about and why. Youll find that, when youre speaking more conversationally, you cant get away with being vague or speaking in professionalese. Then, once the ideas are flowing, transfer them to the page. If you havent got anyone to talk to, you can imagine talking to someone. (Or talk to yourself – though doing this unannounced in the middle of the office might make it look like the pressure of writing has really got to you.) 11) Remind yourself why youre writing Too often, we can get so lost in the process of writing that we dont remember why were writing. But its good to keep your why in mind. If you have a to-do list for your document, try writing at the top make the customer feel happy or get basics of information to manager so we can get this project moving – or whatever applies to your piece of work. Moving away from your words and back to the main purpose of what youre doing makes it easier to get on with mini subtasks (like writing a first draft). Thats because you can see what youre doing in the context of something more meaningful. Try something new If you find yourself habitually procrastinating, you need to change at least some of your writing habits. This can feel scary. A good example is writing faster than youre comfortable with, leaving imperfect sentences in your wake. If youre used to writing something really, really good and deleting each sentence and re-writing as you go, its going to be tough when you first try writing more freely. But you should try. If theres anything to be learned from the extremely diverse habits of famous authors, its that they found their own best habits for writing well. Youre just as much a unique individual as they are. Try some of the ideas here, find what works for you, and get writing. If youd like to learn more about how to tackle other challenges in writing, check out our in-person courses for individuals and companies or our online-training programme e360 – or just get in touch. Image credit: Nataly Studio / Shutterstock

Americas Breakable Incrustation essays

Americas Breakable Incrustation essays The calamity of September 11th were not random acts of evil, rather they were calculated attacks on the attitudes that every American held prior to September 11th including myself. My lack of knowledge on American foreign policy proceeding to the measures of September 11th underscore, in my understanding, why the attacks occurred in the first place. The destruction on September 11th, 2001 symbolized Americans paramount inaction in receptive to not only the symptoms of the terrorist organizations, but the very reason why they are created. The values that Americans hold dear have negative consequences which must be presented in our discussion to fully understand the initiative of September 11th. Americas individualistic culture has formed, on some levels, an international- anti American sentiment embraced by less fortunate citizens of countrys to which we have influenced negatively. If there isnt change, September 11th could be a prelude to similar or worse acts of violence on th e United States. Though American culture might have its flaws, the fundamentals of democracy and the prosperity that stems from democracy as a heuristic can be more accurately re-embraced by Americans as well as the international community. On the morning of September 11th, 2001 at about 8:45 a.m., a hijacked passenger jet, American Airlines Flight 11 out of Boston, Massachusetts, crashed into the north tower of the World Trade Center, tearing an immense hole in the building and setting it afire. Unexpectedly 15 minutes after the first plane had crashed, a second hijacked airliner, United Airlines Flight 175 from Boston, crashed into the south tower of the World Trade Center. Immediately and for the first time in U.S. history, air traffic nation wide had been halted. Also, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the Pentagon as a United Airlines Flight 93, also hijacked, crashes in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, southeast of Pitts...

Population Resource Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Population Resource Environment - Essay Example To address this issue, a proposed energy plan to drill the ANWR has been revisited. Data results that the US Geological Survey released estimated a 95% chance that 11.6 billion barrels of oil is present in the area (Corn, 51). This proposal caused the conservationists to react because of the possible negative impact on the preserved natural environment. Analyzing the pros and cons of the proposal, I have come to stand against oil drilling in ANWR because of the negative implications it may bring on the environment and the less established positive implications that the proposal presents. The said wildlife reserve is a federal protected area which aims to make every living thing in that environment to live under its natural environment circumstances and conditions. It is protected and isolated from human intervention to avoid unnatural wildlife disturbance. Though the oil drilling plan proposes to drill on the wilderness part of the ANWR, the drilling will still cause a disturbance in the other areas of the ANWR. A restriction in the habitat of the fauna living in the area caused by the development may result to a decline in the herds (McKinney, et.al., 193). The Inupiat tribe living in the borders of the area might also be affected since their cultural tradition is linked to the caribou, which they believe will be endangered by the development (McKinney, et.al., 193). The oil that can be produced by the development, according to the US Energy Information Administration, will lower the world price of oil by no more than $1.44 per barrel (Lavelle, Arctic Drilling). This indicates little impact on the oil market making the development insignificant. This issue is a matter of development against natural environment preservation. We have to understand that one of the major reasons on why natural calamities have an exaggerated effect on our surroundings is because of human intervention itself. It is sad that human beings are very

Sierra LeoneWrite about literacy rates, primary school completion rate Essay

Sierra LeoneWrite about literacy rates, primary school completion rate among females, secondary school attendance, and how girls are interested in attending school further - Essay Example From 2008 to 2012, the literacy level for female aged between 15 -24 years stood at 52% while that of the male stood at 70.5% (UNICEF, 2014). In the period between 2008 and 2012, primary education gross enrollment ratio for male was 129% while that of the females stood at 120%. In the secondary education, gender disparity was still evident. During the period, the net attendance ratio for the boy’s student was 39.9% while that of the girls stood at 33%. The statistics from the primary school indicates that there is a notable disparity in terms of girls and boys education in Sierra Leone. Key challenges facing school going girls during their adolescent stage in Sierra Leone include Another notable aspect that makes the rate of school absenteeism to be high among the 9-14 years old is lack of latrines that are separated based on the gender. According to UNICEF, Majority of schools also lack latrines as well as private areas where girls can wash themselves (Marni et al, 2012). Additionally, due to lack of sanitary cloths available for use by the girls during emergencies, girls do not feel motivated to attend the schools. UNICEF has embarked on addressing problems faced by girls in ways such

What Can One Person Do(IT IS NOT TITLE, JUST TOPIC) Research Paper

What Can One Person Do(IT IS NOT TITLE, JUST TOPIC) - Research Paper Example Studies have shown that â€Å"Urban sewage and industrial effluents to be the main factors responsible for deterioration of Ganga water quality† (Singh) It is a well known fact that natural resources are being exploited or abused in most parts of the world. And exploitation is carried out by humans themselves. One of the best examples of such exploitation of natural resources is the Ganges River in India. According to the CIA.gov, the water present in the Ganges River is considered as an essential resource to the India’s population, which is currently about 1.2 billion, is being massively polluted by them and misused as well. The reason due to which this pollution occurs is the overuse of the Ganges River. For what we see- is that River Ganges is heavily engaged in and used for carrying out religious customs and traditions. The Ganges River holds immense religious significance as well as the urbanization which is going around the surrounding of River Ganges. In my opinion, it is necessary that the River Ganges should be rescued from this pollution and its religious significance must remain sacred even if it means to stop and outmaneuver the religious practices in the River Ganges. Also, the economic development should be hampered in the area surrounding the river. According to Singh, he defines the River Ganges as the â€Å"trans-boundary† river of India and Bangladesh. It begins from a state of India named Uttarakhand and it clears and depletes into the Bay of Bengal. â€Å"It has total length 2,525 km river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, and flows south and east through the Gangetic Plain of North India and go to Bay of Bengal through Bangladesh† (Rai) which makes it â€Å"the longest river of India and is the second greatest river in the world by water discharge† (Singh) It is believed that water is an essential but a scarce resource. In a country like India, clean water is a very scarce resource which is

The Disability Representation In The Media

The Disability Representation In The Media My personal reasons for choosing this dissertation topic stem from an interest in how media representations shape the attitudes of wider society. I feel it is important to note that I am writing as a non-disabled student with the view that disability studies and research should not just be the interests of disabled people. Issues of inequality and social injustice need to be considered by all members of society, while ensuring that the views, definitions and experiences of the particular group remain central to the discussion. It has been made apparent that the voices of disabled people have been absent from discussion because of the assumption that they need others to speak them and decide on their needs (Barton, 1993). Dominant views of disability dictate that it is a personal problem of the individual, based on biological impairment. However, I strongly advocate a social model of disability which emphasises that oppression and discrimination by society is the cause of experiences of disability. I plan to make this my main approach in writing my dissertation. Barton (1996, pg. 5) describes disability studies within the field of Sociology as an emancipatory project and argues that the fundamental question we must ask ourselves is whether the sociological imagination contributes to the benefit of disabled people (original emphasis) I believe that any research which aims to illuminate the prejudices implicit in cultural representations of disability, are necessary pursuits and it is vital to seriously consider the reasoning behind research projects as well as the ultimate impact they are aimed to have on particular groups. There has been many publications regarding disability and media representation in recent times which highlights that disability, impairment and disabled people are being frequently misrepresented in the mass media. Research has also suggested that such media representations have an alarming affect on the attitudes of the public. This issue can be divided into three key areas, the use of disability stereotypes, the use of specific language and images of disability and the under-representation of people with impairments working within the mass media. Pressures from disabled activists and legislation such as the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) 2005 have brought this issue onto the agenda and worked to improve the rights of disabled people. An increasing awareness of the issues has resulted. However, the extent of this awareness is debatable as there is still much work to be done in tackling the negative and disempowering portrayals within the media and the current views of society. It is clear that the media has not made sufficient changes and therefore this issue remains extremely relevant. My aim is to explore the representations of disabled people to see whether any changes have been made. 1.3.3 Can Disability be represented positively? It is safe to say that the majority of media depictions of Disability and impairment are incorrect and exclude people with impairments from participation within media production. During my search for literature on the issue of disability and the media, I found that a substantial amount of studies were very critical of the media and focus only on negative stereotypical portrayals with an inclusion of recommendations for their demise. An example which I plan to use in my literature review chapter is Barnes (1992) disabling imagery and the media which ambitiously attempts to deal with all aspects of the media in misrepresenting disability. Despite such an extensive collection of studies in this area, there is very little literature which focuses on the representation of disability by disabled people themselves. It could be argued that there are not enough media sources which involve disabled people of which to analyse. However very recently I am pleasantly surprised to see that there ar e a few emerging. Notable examples include the Channel 4 mockumentary Cast Offs in which six characters with different impairments live together on an island. The show highlights many disability issues and challenges stereotypes of disability. Themes include sexuality, disabled identity and the exclusion of disabled actors and actresses from television (Wilde, 2009). Other media sources which feature disabled people include, Britains Missing Top Model and Dancing on Wheels. Although this is a step in the right direction, the inclusion of individuals with impairments on TV has been restricted mainly to reality TV which offers little insight into the lives of disabled people; instead they are centred on strength and achievement despite the individuals impairment rather than a celebration of disabled identities. The new American musical drama Glee has considered disability issues within its plot lines, this included the use of wheel chairs during a performance in order to educate the a ble-bodied performers on the importance of considering the needs of wheel chair user Artie and the difficulty in getting around the high school from his perspective because of the lack of ramps and accessible doors. Unfortunately however, the character of Artie is played by a non-wheel chair user and so any positive aspects of disability representation in the show are practically reversed by the exclusion of disabled actors and actresses from participating. 1.3.4 The Sun and Ouch! I wanted to choose two online sources for my study which were imposing in terms of disability representation and portrayal. Tabloid newspapers are notorious for depicting various groups inaccurately and producing sensationalised media in order to sell newspapers. The Sun is a daily tabloid newspaper which is among the highest in circulation in the world (The Newspaper Marketing Agency, 2010). The use of disablist language is common in tabloid newspapers and often in the broadsheets too. Reports regularly provide distorted representations of the experience of disability and focus on stereotypical assumptions (Barnes, 1991). This topic will be expanded further in chapter three. I chose The Sun because of its popularity in the UK and because tabloid news is a major source of information for the general public, I will be using articles from The Sun online website. After selecting a tabloid source for my study I began searching for an online source which involved the self-representation o f disabled people, I dismissed many websites because they were charity based, political in nature, or simply provided information and advice for disabled people without necessarily being based on the views and experiences of this group. Examples of websites I considered include Radar and Disability Now. I chose Ouch! because it is not centred on disability politics and aims to reflect the lives and experiences of disabled people (See Ouch! 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/about.shtml). The website consists of articles, blogs, podcasts as well as other features. The writers and contributors are not concerned with political correctness but seek to offer insights into the topics that are important to disabled people and those with a stakehold in disability such as family and friends. To ensure that representations and portrayals of disability are suitable, the Ouch! team are disabled themselves. My first impressions of the website and its content were that it is very humour based and do es not take itself too seriously. It is friendly, accessible and taps into the ordinary, everyday experiences of disability. This is why I decided it would be a suitable source for comparison with a more mainstream media source. 1.4 Structuring my Dissertation My dissertation will consist of six key sections. The first is my introduction which will outline the topic of study, along with my reasons for choosing it and my aims. Chapter two will historicise disability using the work of Barnes (1991, 1996, and 1997). Chapter three will discuss the existing literature which relates to my topic, this will include studies of media representation and disability, a discussion of the political models of disability and the key terms involved in the debate. In chapter four I will discuss my methods of research, including how I selected my sources and an examination of the strengths and weaknesses of my chosen method of content analysis. I will also consider any ethical implications of the study in this chapter. Chapter five will be my most important section, in this I will present and discuss my findings. The final chapter (chapter six) will be focused on my concluding the study. It will relate my findings to the objectives presented in the introducti on and the issues raised in my literature review. It will also include a reflection of my chosen methodology and a summary of the dissertation. 2.0 The History of Disability In order to understand the representations and societal perceptions of disability today, it is necessary to study a history of Disability. The attitudes and practices of the past have a vital influence on present day beliefs. Barnes (1997) argues that the lives of Disabled people in history have been overlooked in favour of an emphasis on medical perspectives and it is clear that many disabled people experience exclusion from mainstream society. This is evident in such areas as employment, in which 45% of disabled people of working age are excluded from. It has been found also that disabled people tend to have lower earnings, with disabled men earning on average  £1.50 less per hour than non-disabled men (Hyde, 2001). As a result, many disabled people live in poverty or are at risk of poverty. Discrimination can also be seen within the education system welfare, housing, leisure and environment and planning. The evidence that disabled people experience sever economic deprivation and social disadvantage is overwhelming and no longer in dispute, whether it be from the governments own commissioned research, from research institutes and academics or from disabled people themselves. (Oliver, 2003, pg. 312). Historically, people with impairments have long been oppressed and marginalised. Hostile treatment, pity and ignorance are common disabling experiences. Barnes (1997 and 1991) claims that perceptions of disability are rooted in ancient Greek and Roman history, he discusses how the cultures of the western world are based on the achievements of the ancient Greeks who built their existence on slavery. Greek society was extremely violent, male dominated and prone to war. They had a strong value for physical and mental strength and any weaknesses and flaws were not tolerated. Such a concern for perfection meant that the infanticide of sick and disabled children was very common. In Greek philosophy, the gods and goddesses were idealised representations of perfect humanity (Dutton cited in Barnes, 1997, pg 13). The only god who was physically imperfect was Hephaestus, this Greek God was rejected by his parents because of his grotesque appearance and labelled a cripple by his wife Aphrodite who committed adultery with a more aesthetically pleasing lover. This mythology is significant as it is a clear source of the links made between impairment and sexuality today as many of us assume that disabled people are unable or do not want to have a sex life. When the Romans conquered Greece and expanded their empire, the values of strength, individualism and able-bodiedness were inherited with it. The Romans also advocated the infanticide of weak children and ridiculed people who acquired impairment during their life course. Many roman games involved using individuals with impairment as comedy acts for the amusement of others. Although both the Greeks and Romans attempted to develop treatments for impairments, they were reserved mainly for those with power and wealth (Garland, 1995). Another foundation of our thoughts and beliefs of disability can be found in the western religions of Christianity and Judaism. Religion in ancient societies viewed disability as anti-religious and a reflection of sin or immoral behaviour. Barnes cites many references from religious texts which imply that impairment is a consequence of bad behaviour. For example, in Deuteronomy (27-27) it states that immorality will be punished by blindness. In contrast to Greek and roman society, the Jewish faith opposed infanticide and encouraged its members to care for the less fortunate this is also a feature of subsequent religions stemming from the Judaism, such as Islam and Christianity. People with impairments were accepted by the community, but as objects of neediness and charity. This was a key feature of Christianity. Consequently, they were viewed only in terms of their impairment and treated as incomplete human beings in need of sympathy (Barnes, 1997). During the Middle Ages disability was associated with evil and superstition and people with impairments were treated with extreme hostility. Children born with impairments were believed to of been sent by the devil as a result of parents involvement in witchcraft and other black arts. This association with evil was very strongly held in Britain during this time and was reflected in art and literature, Shakespeares Richard III is a good illustration of this, Richard is portrayed as physically and mentally deformed despite having no physical impairment. He is destined to only be successful as a villain which perpetuates the negative stereotype of impairment and evil. Just as in the ancient world, disabled people were ridiculed during the middle ages in many forms. Analyses of joke books from this time reveal that impairments such as insanity and idiocy were used as sources of humour. Many individuals with visible impairments were displayed as objects of entertainment (Barnes, 1997). The 18th and 19th century saw the transition from agricultural subsistence to factory production during the industrial revolution and urbanisation process. This brought with it a decline in religious authority and the growth of science and rationality. The development of utilitarian philosophy which emphasised the importance of pleasing the majority at the expense of minority groups created a new found value for individuality and progress. These developments provided justification for the beliefs and practices of the past and can be cited as a starting point for the disability issues which are visible today. These include the development and prioritisation of a medical model of Disability, in which the body and impairment are viewed in individualistic terms rather than social, cultural and political. The institutional prejudice and discrimination of people with impairments in everyday social life is a second issue of Disability theorists. The popularity of eugenic ideas during the mi d twentieth century and the murder of thousands of disabled people, as well as other oppressed minority groups during the second world war is another significant point in modern history and many scientists still advocate Social Darwinist ideals and view human imperfections (both physical and mental) as a societal threat, a threat that needs to be eradicated (Barnes, 1996). The rise of the disability movement in the 1960s saw the development of the Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS), the establishment of such organisations and the activism of disabled people resulted in a re-classification of disability as distinct from impairment and social in nature as opposed to medical (Barnes, 1997). Disability became defined as the disadvantages caused by social institutions and environments which effectively exclude people from participation (UPIAS, 1976). This was later adapted by other organisations such as the British Council of Disabled People (BCODP) and the Disabled Peoples International (DPI) (Barnes, 1997). Eventually, this new understanding of disability became known as the Social Model of Disability (Oliver, 1996a). Disability theory will be discussed further in my literature review (Chapter 3) with an analysis of both the medical and social models of Disability. 3.0 Literature Review 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Disability and Impairment: Key terms in the debate Disability is difficult to conceptualise because of its multi-dimensional and complex nature. The term can be used in many different contexts and from different perspectives which means there is little consensus on its definition (Altman, 2001). Classifications associated with a medical model of disability are based on a distinction between impairment disability and handicap impairment is defined as functional limitations to do with the body, disability is when an individual cannot function normally because if this impairment, and handicap refers to an inability to participate in social life (Oliver, 1990). The main problem with such classifications is that the individual impairment is considered to be the most important factor and reinforces an individual definition in which functional limitations predominate. Thus, disability is viewed in terms of an individuals personal inability to function (Barton, 1993 pg. 237). This model has had a powerful influence in shaping not just social policy, but societal attitudes and behavior. In reality, many disabled people have rejected this understanding of disability. Instead disability refers to failures in the structural environment to meet the needs of all individuals. The Disabled Peoples International (1981) put forward the following definition which better fits the views of disabled people. Impairment is the functional limitation within the individual caused by physical, mental or sensory impairment. Disability is the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the normal life of the community on an equal level with others due to physical and social barriers. In relation to my content analysis research, I will be looking to identify how disability is conceptualised and the type of language used both in The Sun and Ouch! 3.3 The Language of Disability The first and most important thing to remember about discussions of language and disability is that they arise because disabled people experience discrimination daily and are denied the same rights and opportunities as the rest of the population. Apart from the fact that words can be deeply hurtful to disabled individuals, they have power and are used extensively to justify oppression (Barnes, 1993, pg 8). The power of language is a significant topic of discussion in the area of disability studies. While we assume that the primary purpose of language is to aid communication, Oliver (1994, pg. 4) argues that it is also about politics, domination and control and I am inclined to agree. The development of language is not based on consensus of meaning but rather through the ability of some groups to force their meaning and understanding of others. This form of cultural domination is visible in many forms, the imposition of the spoken word on deaf people and sexist language directed at women are both suitable examples (Oliver, 1989, pg.1). The misconceptions that society has of disability are caused as well reinforced by the use of disablist language. Many of the abusive terms directed at disabled people are well circulated and familiar to most of the population. moron cripple spastic idiot mong dwarf midget lunatic the list is endless (Clark and Marsh, 2002). This kind of terminology has t he power to promote prejudice and discrimination against disabled people. As mentioned in the previous section (3.2) the DPI re-defined impairment and disability in line with the reality that disability is rooted in social injustice. This means that the language used by both the media and wider society ought to reflect a social model of disability in which society discriminates against those who do not conform to the ideals of an able-bodied society. Disablist language such as the disabled or people with disabilities are unacceptable yet commonly used by the press and the population generally. Individuals do not have disabilities, they have impairments. Phrases such as the disabled objectify the individual and impose a particular label on their identity which is based solely on their impairment. Disabled people as opposed to people with disabilities is more appropriate as it implies that the disability belongs to society, whereas the latter makes it the property of the person (Barne s, 1991 and 1992). Within the British press, the aforementioned terms, particularly cripple and handicap are used regularly. This is usually within a sentimental and patronising context. For example stories in which disabled individuals display bravery despite of their disability or handicap or instances where individuals have made personal scarifies to help a disabled individual or group. These generally involve the use of emotive language, such as wheelchair bound afflicted sufferer victim and so on (Barnes, 1991). To summarise, much of the language that is used in discussions of disability are based on an individualistic/medical understanding of the nature of disability. They are not developed from the experiences of disabled people, but rather from the perceptions of others. While conducting my study I will be interested to see which kinds of terminology and language are used in the newspaper articles from my sample. 3.4 Disability Theory: the Medical model and the Social model The medical model of disability has formed the basis of commonsense assumptions and beliefs about the nature of disability. This perspective focuses on the individual and his or her impairment. It imposes a presumption of biological or physiological inferiority upon disabled persons (Hahn, 1985). Medical views attribute physical and intellectual impairments as constituting disability, while denying its social and political nature. Oliver (1983 and 1996a) prefers the term individual model and argues that medicalisation is one element of this, along with psychological aspects. Medical accounts amount to a personal tragedy theory of disability (Oliver, 1990 and Finkelstein, 1980) in which disability simply happens to individuals and is personal to them, it implies that any difficulties are a direct result of impairments (Finkelstein, 1993) this forms the basis of everyday beliefs. In terms of rehabilitation, emphasis has been placed on functional limitations of an individual and attempt s to find ways of preventing, curing or (failing these) caring for disabled people (Marks cited in Williams, 2001 pg 125). As mentioned throughout this dissertation, this way of understanding disability has been heavily criticised by disabled people and disability has been re-conceptualised as a social and political problem through the work of disabled groups in the 1960s (Barnes, 1997). Disability theory has roughly been divided into American and British contributions. I will briefly outline the work of American sociologists, however I am more concerned with the work of British authors as it better relates to my dissertation and its theoretical standpoint. American writers during the 1960s challenged the idea that individual medical conditions or impairments were the cause of disability. Goffman (1963) discuses the role of stigma in spoiling (pg. 15) a persons social identity, one of the forms of stigma he identifies derives from physical abnormalities. He also identifies that disability is socially constructed and concludes that the attitudes of professional contributes to experiences of disability. St one (cited in Barnes, 1997) argues that the social construction of disability is based on the power of the sate in restricting welfare to those who require it. The importance of work and production in industrialised society has meant that those who are unable to participate are in need of assistance from the state, who along with medical professionals, are able to define disability as an individual problem and determine the level of access to welfare and other state services. Other writers, notably Albrecht (cited in Barnes, 1997) point out that disability has been controlled and transformed into commercial enterprise (pg. 6) he claims that societies produce different forms of illness, impairment and disability. The ways in which these are interpreted is dependent on economic factors he argues. American functionalist/interactionist accounts of disability are derivative of Parsonian ideas and focus on the role of being sick which is expected of disabled people and considered to be a form of deviance (Oliver, 1996b). The liberal values that exist in an industrial (and post- industrial) society place importance on personal responsibility and a strong work ethic, deviancy is created when an individual is unable to conform to these ideals. Writers have also argued that people with impairments are dependent on medical professionals who assist in the psychological accommodation of a disabled identity (pg. 21) and provide rehabilitation. The main criticisms made of the American tradition are that they over look the significance of social and economic factors central to experiences of disability. They also fail to take into account the perspectives of disabled people themselves, both these points form the main focus of British writers which I will turn to next. British theorists have been much more critical in their assessments of disability and have explicitly expressed their arguments about the oppression, prejudice and discrimination that many disabled people encounter on a routine basis. A number of writers have approached disability in society through a materialist or Marxist analysis, focusing on economic and political factors. Others have highlighted the importance of the subjective experiences of disability and the role of culture. References have been made to the importance of gender, ethnicity, class, sexuality and other social factors which shape individual understandings of disability (Barnes, 1997). Theorists who use a materialist framework claim that oppression is caused by economic structures. The lives of disabled people have little value in a capitalist society as they are deemed unable to contribute to economic and social life (Riddell, 1996). Finkelstein (1980) identifies three phases in history with regard to societal re action to impairment . In the first, pre-industrial phase people with impairments were not excluded from economic life and the notion of disability did not exist. This was because work was subsistence based and aimed at providing basic food and amenities for survival. Communities needed all the labour they could get from its members (Barnes and Mercer, 2003). The second phase was that of industrial capitalism during the 19th century, both Oliver (1990) and Finkelstein (1980) argue that during this time Disability developed along side capitalist production and free market enterprise. The rise of factory production and the intense levels of speed and control involved meant that disabled workers were not welcome in the work place. Processes of urbanisation created fragmented communities and weakened family networks. The growth of towns and cities to house the work force were geographically and structurally inadequate for disabled people and contributed to their segregation from wider s ociety and the introduction of residential institutions (Barnes and Mercer, 2003). For Finkelstein, it was at this point that people with impairments became a distinctly oppressed group, he argues that in phase the use of technology and the activism of disabled people will end oppression and disability will cease to be viewed in individualistic or medical terms (Barnes, 1997). Perhaps the growth of the internet and websites like BBC Ouch! mark the beginning of this phase. Oliver (1990) also discusses capitalism and disability, he applies Marxist ideas about the power of ideology to argue that the values which form the basis of social practice and culture conceptualised disability as a personal tragedy and aided the development of the individual model. Critics of Finkelstein and Olivers materialist analyses of disability argue that they over look the individual experiences of disability, rather than treat disabled people as a homogenous group. The social model needs to be reconceptualised with this in mind and from a postmodernist perspective which recognises diversity (Shakespeare, 1994, Morris, 1991, Crow, 1992). These writers discuss the prejudiced attitudes towards disabled people through culture, as material explanations fall short in explaining why discrimination exists and how disablist culture produces it. *incomplete* 3.5 Media representation of Disability and effects on the audience The stereotypical portrayal of disabled people within popular culture is one of the most significant factors contributing to the discrimination of disabled people. Hunt (1966) argues that disabled people represent an other in society and pose a threat to the able-bodied values entrenched in its structure. He describes this threat as being divided into five forms, as unfortunate, useless, different, oppressed and sick (pg. 146). Disabled people are considered unfortunate because of the belief that they are unable to lead a full life. They are useless because they cannot contribute economically, different because they do not conform to normal expectations of a human being and marked out as members of a minority group (pg. 150). Finally, they are oppressed and sick because they do not fit in, for the able-bodied, normal world we are representations of many of the things they most fear- tragedy, loss, dark and the unknown contact with us throws up in peoples faces the fact of sickness an d death in the world (pg. 155-156). Hunts arguments about the way disability is understood in western culture are applicable today in studying the misconceptions which are reproduced by the media. As discussed in Chapter Two, such misconceptions stem from the beliefs and practices of the past and have become firmly ingrained within society. Disablist attitudes become normalised through a process of social learning (Barnes, 1991) however, the extent and nature of this process is open to debate and many argue that there is no real way of knowing how he media influences perception. There have been many studies which have investigated the cultural portrayals of disability, some examples follow. 3.5.1 Disabling imagery and the media by Colin Barnes. The focus of this study is the portrayal of disabled people in the media and its stereotypical nature. Using secondary data from the content analysis studies of various organizations, Barnes (1992) identifies several stereotypes of disabled people produced within the media. These are: the disabled person as pitiable and pathetic as an object of violence as sinister and evil as atmosphere or curio as super cripple as an object of ridicule as their own worst enemy as a burden as sexually abnormal , as incapable of participating in community life and as normal (Barnes, 1992, pg 3). Rather than focus on particular aspects of the media, Barnes chose to study all aspects of the media, including the press, radio, television, books and so on. He argues that media depictions of disability contribute to experiences of discrimination in a significant way. He goes on to reiterate that the poverty experienced by disabled people cannot be explained by the traditional model which suggests individua l physical or intellectual limitations to be the root cause. It is caused by reactive environments and disabling barriers. Thus disability refers to a complex system of social constraints imposed on disabled people by a highly discriminatory society (Barnes, 1992, pg. 5). As mentioned in Chapter T7wo, stereotypical assumptions about disability stem from the beliefs and practices of earlier times, they are embedded in the very structure of society and are expressed in all institutions- ed

Street Prostitution in St Kilda, Australia Essay -- Papers

Street Prostitution in St Kilda, Australia Street prostitution. St Kilda has been dogged by its presence and consequences for decades, and is subsequently a major community concern. There have been innumerable attempts to address the problem, however it is only until recently that an extensive and resourced approach, incorporating supporters representing all political parties and many community stakeholders, has come into force. In a report released by the Attorney General's Street Prostitution Advisory Group (established in March 2001 and consisting of parliamentary, government, residential, police, welfare, trade, and sex worker representatives), it has been proposed that tolerance zones and street worker centres should be established in the City of Port Phillip in an attempt to efficiently manage street prostitution in the area. This said proposition has been met with much acclaim, but, inevitably, not without opposition. One of the world's oldest professions, street prostitution first arrived in Australia with the First Fleet in 1788. Initially confined to the penal settlements, the industry changed dramatically in the nineteenth century, with the gold rush attracting many prostitutes to Victoria. Prostitution became densely concentrated in the city, however, the development of Melbourne, the impact of the First and Second World Wars, economic depression and legislative change saw the industry decline and spread into the inner city suburbs, such as St Kilda, Fitzroy and South Melbourne. Reports do exist of prostitution in St Kilda occurring as early as the late nineteenth century, however it was not common in the said are... ...the proposal cannot go ahead in good stead. The issue of street prostitution is not a pretty one, but nor is it uncommon. The only way that the problem can be properly addressed is if all parties involved realise the extreme need for the industry's management. The establishment of tolerance zones and street worker centres, as well as all that is proposed to go hand in hand with them, is an innovative, practical, and much-needed incentive that will undoubtedly reduce, and possibly open the gateway to the eventual eradication of street prostitution. The industry has gotten completely out of hand in the St Kilda area, and needs to be tightly controlled. The report released by the Street Prostitution Advisory Group, of which the government supports, holds the key to ultimately accomplishing this essential goal.